Events
The Cedars-Sinai Program in the History of Medicine hosts a series of symposia and roundtables, including the monthly Speaker Series in the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. These events are open to all members of the medical center community and the interested public. Attendees will hear leading international and national scholars share cutting-edge historical scholarship about the forces and people that have influenced medicine and the health sciences.
Upcoming Events
Date & Time |
Event |
Presenter |
---|---|---|
Thursday, September 19, at noon PT |
"Final Wishes: California and the Rise of Body Donor Programs" |
Susan Lederer, PhD, Ronald L. Numbers Professor of Medical History and Bioethics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health |
Thursday, October 31, at noon PT |
"Five Centuries of Collecting Vesaliana" |
Russell Johnson, Curator, History and Special Collections for the Sciences, Library Special Collections, UCLA |
Monday, November 18, at 4 PM PT |
"Bloody Numbers: Slave Trading and the Imagination of the Human Body in the Early Iberian Atlantic" |
Pablo Gomez, MD, PhD, Associate Professor of History and the History of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison |
Thursday, December 5, at noon PT |
"The Young Doctor is in: The Making of a New Type of Medical Student in the Nineteenth Century" |
Christin Zurbach, PhD, Cedars-Sinai and Huntington Library Fellow in the History of Medicine |
Thursday, January 23, 2025, at noon PT |
"Speaker Series in the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences" |
Katja Guenther, MD, PhD, Professor of History, Princeton University |
Thursday, February 20, 2025, at noon PT |
"Speaker Series in the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences" |
Thomas Schlich, MD, PhD, James McGill Professor in the History of Medicine & Department Chair, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Social Studies of Medicine, McGill University |
Thursday, March 20, 2025, at noon PT |
"Speaker Series in the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences" |
Dominique Avril Klakoski, PhD, Professor & Director of the Eleanor Crowder Bjoring Center for Nursing Historical Inquiry, Centennial Distinguished Professor of Nursing, School of Nursing, University of Virginia |
Thursday, May 29, 2025, at noon PT |
"Speaker Series in the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences" |
Aimee Medeiros, PhD Associate Professor, History of Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco |
Past Events
Date & Time |
Event |
Presenter |
---|---|---|
Thursday, |
Miracles on the Beach: The Medicine of D-Day |
Leo Gordon, MD, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center |
Thursday, |
"Diet as Medicine: Thoughts from Greco-Roman Antiquity" |
Claire Bubb, PhD, Assistant Professor, NYU |
Thursday, |
"Beneath the Skin and Back to Life: Wax Models and the Visualization of Disease" |
Thomas Schnalke, MD, Director, Berlin Museum of Medical History of the Charité |
Thursday, |
"Testing Knowledge: Validation and Regulation in the Sciences of Health" |
Lara Keuck, PhD, Bielefeld University |
Thursday, |
"Allergic: the History of Our Immune Reactions to a Changing World" |
Theresa Macphail, PhD, Associate Professor, Stevens Institute of Technology |
Thursday, |
"The Hunger Wars: Politics and Public Health in the 1960s South" |
Dana Landress, Assistant Professor of Medical History and Bioethics, University of Wisconsin–Madison |
Thursday, |
"Flesh and Bones: The Art of Anatomy – the Making of an Exhibition" – In Collaboration with USC Keck School of Medicine" |
Monique Kornell, PhD, Visiting Associate Professor, Program in the History of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, |
"Psychiatric Epidemiology and the Question of Scale" |
Alfred Freeborn, PhD, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science |
Date & Time |
Event |
Presenter |
---|---|---|
Thursday, |
"White Plague, Yellow Peril: Tuberculosis and Environmental Health in San Francisco Chinatown" |
Tamara Venit-Shelton, PhD, Professor of History, Department of History, Claremont McKenna College |
Thursday, |
"Wound Man: The Many Lives of a Surgical Diagram" |
Jack Harnell, PhD, Assistant Professor of History, University of East Anglia, UK |
Thursday, |
"The Caesarean Operation and its Theological Sources" |
Elizabeth O’Brien, PhD, Assistant Professor of History, University of California, Los Angeles |
Thursday, |
"History of Medicine Seminar Series" |
Elias Aboujaoude, MD, Director of the Cedars-Sinai Program on Internet, Health and Society |
Thursday, |
"The Doctor Who Wasn’t There: Technology, History and the Limits of Telehealth" |
Jeremy Greene, MD, PhD, MA, William H. Welch Professor of Medicine and the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University |
Tuesday, |
Distinguished Lecture in the Medical Humanities: "The Story of an Unlikely Personal and Professional Transplant Odyssey" |
Robert Montgomery, MD, H. Leon Pachter Professor of Surgery, Chair, Department of Surgery, NYU Grossman School of Medicine |
Friday, |
"Cedars-Sinai COVID-19 Archive Launch" |
Rena Selya, PhD, MLIS, Archivist, Historical Conservancy Department, Research Assistant Professor and Associate Director, Program in the History of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, |
"Understanding Early-Twentieth Century Medical Reforms through the Lens of Black Culture: Or, How I Became a Historian of Medicine" |
Adam Biggs, Assistant Professor of Racial Justice in Science and Technology Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute |
Thursday, |
"The Doctor’s Hand: Instrument and Mind in Classical Chinese Medicine" |
Marta E. Hanson, PhD, Visiting Scholar, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin; Retired Associate Professor, Department of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University |
Thursday, |
"Tripping into an Uncertain Future: Historical Perspective on the Resurgence of Psychedelics in Psychiatry" |
Anne Harrington, PhD, Franklin L. Ford Professor of History of Science, Harvard University |
Thursday, |
"Applied History of Medicine Symposium" |
Panel Chair: Kirsten Moore-Sheeley, PhD, Assistant Professor, Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, |
Jointly sponsored by the Keck School of Medicine of USC HEAL Program (in person at USC and on Zoom) "The Cultural History of the Prostate" |
Ericka Johnson, Professor of Gender and Society, Linköping University, Sweden |
Thursday, |
"Insomniac History: On the Art of Recognition in the Making of Health and its Translations" |
Carla Nappi, PhD, Andrew W. Mellon Chair in History, Co-Director, Humanities Center, University of Pittsburgh |
Thursday, |
"Steroid Phobia: Lessons from the History of Symptomatic Treatment" |
Lisa Haushofer, MD, PhD, Senior Research Associate, Institute for Biomedical Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Zurich |
Thursday, |
"Eugenics, Sterilization, Memory, and Reparations in California" |
Alexandra Minna Stern, PhD, Professor and Dean of Humanities, UCLA |
Thursday, |
Archiving Covid-19 Symposium |
Panel Chair: Rena Selya, PhD, MLIS, Archivist and Assistant Professor, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center |
Thursday, |
"(Re)producing Reproduction: Obstetrical Training Models, Images, and Methods, 1880–1900" |
Jessica M. Dandona, PhD, Professor of Art History and Liberal Arts, Minneapolis College of Art and Design |
Thursday, |
"Greco-Roman Anatomy in 3D: an Interactive Atlas" |
Orly Lewis, PhD, Senior Lecturer, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Department of Classics |
Thursday, |
"Making Sense of Diabetes’ Racial Past." |
Arleen M. Tuchman, PhD, Nelson O. Tyrone Jr. Professor of History at Vanderbilt University |
Thursday, |
"The Influence of [Another] Louis on American Medicine" |
David N. Louis, MD, Chief of Enterprise Pathology, Mass General Brigham, Chair Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Pathologist-in-Chief, Massachusetts General Hospital, Benjamin Castleman Professor of Pathology, Harvard Medical School |
Thursday, |
"Humanity as Symbiont: René Dubos, the Autochthonous Flora, and the Discovery of the Microbiome" |
Nicolas Rasmussen, PhD, Professor Emeritus, School of Humanities & Languages, University of NSW |
Thursday, |
"The Emergence of Scientific Disease Description: the early 19th century Guy's Hospital Triumvirate" |
Frank Strauss, MD, Emeritus Staff, Clinical Chief, and Executive Committee, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center |
Date & Time |
Presenter |
Event |
---|---|---|
Thursday, |
"Best Practices in the Medical Humanities" |
Susanna Garfinkle, MD, MSc, Director, Mount Sinai Academy for Medicine and the Humanities |
Thursday, |
"Ab Ovo: A Tour of Ancient Greek and Roman Obstetrics and Gynecology" |
Melissa Wong, MD, Gynecologist, Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, |
"The History of Xenotransplantation" |
Joanna Chikwe, MD, Irina and George Schaeffer Distinguished Chair in Cardiac Surgery in honor of Alfredo Trento, MD Professor and Chair, Department of Cardiac Surgery, Smidt Heart Institute at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, |
"Reproductive Medicine and Gendered Education: The Case of Precolonial Mali" |
Devon Golaszewski, PhD, Fellow, Program in the History of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, |
“Medicine as an Art: Perspectives from the Ancient World” |
Mark Schiefsky, PhD, C. Lois P. Grove Professor of the Classics and Director of the Center for Hellenistic Studies, Harvard University |
Thursday, |
Pushing Cool: Big Tobacco, Racial Marketing, and the Untold Story of the Menthol Cigarette” |
Keith Wailoo, PhD, Henry Putnam University Professor of History and Public Affairs, Princeton University |
Thursday, |
“From a Hospital in Every Community to an Emergency Department in Every Region” |
Nic Jon Ramos, PhD, Assistant Professor of History, Africana Studies, and the Center for Science, Technology and Society, Drexel University |
Thursday, |
Paul Sampson, PhD, Assistant Professor of History, University of Scranton |
“Disease and Discipline: Airborne Disease and the Origins of Prison Reform” |
Thursday, May 26, 2022 |
Franklin Strauss, MD, Nephrologist, Cedars-Sinai |
“The modernization of medical education in the 20th century: the role of philanthropy” |
Thursday, May 12, 2022 |
Angela N.H. Creager, Thomas M. Siebel Professor, History of Science Chair, Department of History, Princeton University |
“The Making (and Unmaking) of Environmental Carcinogens” |
Thursday, April 21, 2022 |
Daniel J. Wallace, MD, FACP, MACR, Professor of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai |
“The Double Life of Hans Reiter and Discovery of Reactive Arthritis” |
Thursday, April 14, 2022 |
Peiting C. Li, Medical Humanities Fellow in Residence, Cedars-Sinai Program in the History of Medicine |
“Debating Tuberculosis in 1920s Shanghai: Medical Literacy and Scientific Efficacy” |
Thursday, March 31, 2022 |
David S. Jones, Professor of Epidemiology, Harvard University |
“When Every Operation Is an Experiment: The Ethics of Innovation in Cardiac Surgery” |
Thursday, March 17, 2022 |
Eugene Flamm, Professor of Neurosurgery and Chairman Emeritus, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center |
“Neurosurgery Before Neurosurgery” |
Thursday, March 10, 2022 |
Rabbi Dr. Jason Weiner, BCC, Denior Rabbi & Director, Spiritual Care Department, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center |
“The Jewish Hospital in America: Past, Present and (Possible) Future” |
Thursday, March 3, 2022 |
Eram Alam, Assistant Professor of History of Science, Harvard University |
“The Care of Foreigners” |
Thursday, February 17, 2022 |
Jacob Steere-Williams, Associate Professor of History, College of Charleston |
“Like Swallowing Red Hot Coals': Carbolic Acid and the Regulation of the First Household Disinfectant in Victorian Britain” |
Wednesday, February 3, 2022 |
Robin Scheffler, Associate Professor of Science, Technology, and Society, MIT |
“The Promise and Pitfalls of Biomedicine” |
Thursday, January 20, 2022 |
Lara Freidenfelds, Historian of Medicine |
“Your Baby on Day 33": Pregnancy Development Timelines from Nineteenth-Century Maternity Guides to Twenty-First Century Apps” |
Thursday, January 6, 2022 |
Richard McKay, Wellcome Trust Research Fellow, Director of Studies for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge |
“Queer Men and Venereal Disease at East London’s Whitechapel Clinic, c.1932-1982” |
Date & Time |
Event |
Presenter |
---|---|---|
Thursday, December 9, 2021 |
History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Speaker Series: “What's the Therapeutic Value of Anatomy in Medicine? The Greek and Roman Case” |
Luis Alejandro Salas, PhD, Assistant Professor of Classics at Washington University in St. Louis |
Thursday, November 11, 2021 |
History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Speaker Series: “Racial, Ethnic and Gender Bias in 19th Century U.S. Medicine” |
Franklin Strauss, MD, nephrologist at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, October 28, 2021 |
History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Speaker Series: “A 'New Order of Obstetrics'? Childbirth Cultures in Divided Germany” |
Jennifer Rodgers, PhD, Research Assistant Professor of History at Caltech |
Thursday, October 14, 2021 |
History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Speaker Series: “Ownership, Knowledge and Genetic Information” |
Myles Jackson, PhD, professor of Historical Studies at Princeton University, Institute for Advanced Study |
Wednesdays, Oct.13-Nov.17, 2021 |
Six-week course: “Epidemics, Medicine and Society” |
Gideon Manning, PhD, associate director of the History of Medicine Program at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, September 30, 2021 |
History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Speaker Series: “Understanding Addiction: From Past to Present” |
Itai Danovitch, MD, MBA, Chair and Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, September 23, 2021 |
History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Speaker Series: “From Dusk Till Dawn: The Life of an 18th Century Hospital Physician” |
Elizabeth Mellyn, PhD, Associate Professor of History at University of New Hampshire |
Thursday, September 2, 2021 |
History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Speaker Series: “Delivering the Enlightenment: Childbirth Technologies in 18th Century France” |
Margaret Carlyle, PhD, Assistant Professor of History at University of British Columbia |
Thursdays, Sept.2-Oct. 7, 2021 |
Six-week course: “Incurables to COVID-19: The Evolution of Cedars-Sinai as a Modern Hospital” |
Kirsten Moore-Sheeley, PhD, Assistant Professor in the History of Medicine Program at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, July 8, 2021 |
History of Medicine Speaker Series: “Hildegard's Daughters: Women of Science, Women of the Cedars-Sinai Mural” |
Stephen Geller, MD, pathologist and chairman emeritus of the Department of Pathology at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, June 24, 2021 |
History of Medicine Speaker Series: TBD |
Hannah Murphy, PhD, UKRI Future Leaders fellow and lecturer in Early Modern History at King’s College London |
Thursday, June 10, 2021 |
History of Medicine Speaker Series: “Racial Inequities in American Medicine: Historical Perspective and Present-Day Legacies” |
Carolyn Roberts, PhD, Assistant Professor of History of Science & Medicine and African American Studies at Yale University |
Thursday, May 27, 2021 |
History of Medicine Speaker Series: “From Qi-guo 瘈狗 to Qi-bing 瘈病 (From “Mad Dogs” to Rabies): Pastorians and Public Health in Republican China (1911-1945)” |
Chien-Ling Liu Zeleny, PhD, historian of medicine at UCLA |
Wednesdays, May 26-June 30, 2021 |
Six-week course: “Medical (Mal)Practices Under the Nazi Regime” |
Sari J. Siegel, PhD, postdoctoral fellow in the History of Medicine Program at Cedars-Sinai |
Wednesday, May 19, 2021 |
John M. Barry; conversation moderated by Michelle Kittleson, MD, PhD, Director of Education in Heart Failure and Transplantation and Professor of Medicine at Cedars-Sinai |
|
Thursday, May 13, 2021 |
History of Medicine Speaker Series: “Clinical-Anatomical Medicine Before the Paris Hospital Medicine” |
Evan Ragland, PhD, assistant professor of History at University of Notre Dame |
Thursday, April 29, 2021 |
History of Medicine Speaker Series: “Is Medicine Dysgenic?” |
Nathaniel Comfort, PhD, professor of the History of Medicine at Johns Hopkins University |
Thursday, April 15, 2021 |
History of Medicine Lunch Meeting: “The Cesarean Section Rate: An American History of Risk, Technology, and Consequence” |
Jacqueline Wolf, PhD, professor of the History of Medicine at Ohio State University |
Thursday, April 1, 2021 |
History of Medicine Lunch Meeting: “Race, Remedies, and (Drug) Resistance: Defining Tuberculosis between East Africa and the World” |
Kirsten Moore-Sheeley, PhD, postdoctoral fellow in the History of Medicine at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, March 18, 2021 |
History of Medicine Lunch Meeting: “Mengele, Auschwitz, and Medical Murder: The Historical Antecedents of Nazism as a ‘Public Hygiene’ and Bio-Political Project” |
Steven E. Aschheim, PhD, professor emeritus of History at The Richard Koebner Minerva Center for German History |
Thursday, March 4, 2021 |
History of Medicine Lunch Meeting: “Revisiting Human and Animal Experimentation” |
Anita Guerrini, PhD, homing professor in the Humanities and History emerita at Oregon State University |
Thursday, February 18, 2021 |
History of Medicine Lunch Meeting: “The Captain’s Underpinnings – The Saga of a Gland” |
Leo Gordon, MD, general surgeon and professor of Surgery at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center |
Thursday, February 4, 2021 |
“In Agony: Renaissance Surgery and Its Machines” |
Cynthia Klestinec, PhD, professor of English at Miami University of Ohio |
Thursday, January 21, 2021 |
“Censoring Medicine in the Age of Galileo” |
Hannah Marcus, PhD, assistant professor of the History of Science at Harvard University |
Thursday, January 7, 2021 |
“Books, Bones and Bodies: Anatomy in Nazi Germany and its Legacies for Medicine Today” |
Sabine Hildebrandt, MD, associate professor of Pediatrics at Harvard Medical School |
Date & Time |
Event |
Presenter |
---|---|---|
Thursday, December 17, 2020 |
“Heredity under the Microscope: Chromosomes and the Study of the Human Genome” |
Soraya de Chadarevian, PhD, professor of History of Science, Technology, and Medicine at UCLA |
Thursday, December 3, 2020 |
“Ancient Babylonian Medicine: A Shekel of Prevention is Worth a Mina of Cure” |
Mark Geller, PhD, Jewish Chronicle professor of Jewish Studies at University College London |
Thursday, November 12, 2020 |
“How the Concept of Epilepsy Changed over the 20th Century” |
Simon Shorvon, MD, professor of Clinical Neurology at University College London |
Thursday April 2, 2020 |
“Discovery of a Renal Origin of Hypertension by Harry Goldblatt, 1934” |
Leon Fine, MD, professor of biomedical sciences and medicine at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, October 29, 2020 |
“The Elegance of the Simple Experiment: Unraveling the Functions of Air and of the Blood in Post-Harveian Times” |
Leon Fine, MD, professor of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, October 15, 2020 |
“From Trade to Profession: William Osler to the Present” |
Franklin Strauss, MD, nephrologist at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, October 1, 2020 |
“Everybody Knows Dr. Tulp” |
Stephen Geller, MD, pathologist and chairman emeritus of the Department of Pathology at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, September 24, 2020 |
“Personal Narratives and Ephemera from the 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic; Staggering Losses: WWI and the Influenza Pandemic of 1918” |
Russell Johnson, MLS, curator of History and Special Collections for the Sciences at UCLA Biomedical Library; Micaela Sullivan-Fowler, MS, MA, curator and librarian of the History of Health Sciences at University of Wisconsin-Madison |
Thursday, September 10, 2020 |
“With a Candle and a Teaspoon: Doctor Richard Bright Initiates an Era of Exploration of Kidney Disease (1827-1951)” |
Franklin Strauss, MD, nephrologist at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, August 27, 2020 |
“Challenge Trials for COVID-19: Some Ethical Reflections” |
Stuart Finder, PhD, director of the Center for Healthcare Ethics at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday, August 13, 2020 |
“Every Breath You Take: Reverse Engineering a Museum Piece for Use in COVID” |
Mervyn Singer, MD, professor of Intensive Care Medicine at University College London |
Thursday July 30, 2020 |
“Anatomical Drawings in the Collection of Dr. Johannes van Horne” |
Erin Travers, PhD, graduate intern in philanthropy, Getty Research Institute
|
Thursday July 23, 2020 |
“Intimate Relations: The Development of Arterial Repair, 1880–1960” |
Justin Barr, MD, PhD, general surgery resident at Duke Medical Center and author of the book Of Life and Limb: Surgical Repair of the Arteries in War and Peace, 1880–1960 |
Thursday June 25, 2020 |
“The Foundations of Modern Medicine Are Set” |
Stephen Geller, MD, pathologist and chairman emeritus of the Department of Pathology at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday June 18, 2020 |
“Hunting for Vesalius” |
Dániel Margóscy, PhD, Department of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge, and author of the book The Fabrica of Andreas Vesalius: A Worldwide Descriptive Census, Ownership, and Annotations of the 1543 and 1555 Editions |
Thursday June 11, 2020 |
“On Creativity in Scientists and Artists: Is the Era of Big Data Undermining Our Creativity in Experimental Medicine?” |
Leon Fine, MD, professor of biomedical sciences and medicine at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday June 4, 2020 |
“Balloons and Bladders: Images of Urinary Bladders from Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) to Joseph Wright of Derby (1734–1797)” |
Monique Kornell, PhD, visiting faculty in the Program in the History of Medicine at Cedars-Sinai, and currently curating the exhibit Under the Skin: The Art of Anatomy at the Getty Research Institute. |
Thursday May 28, 2020 |
“History of Cardiology at Cedars-Sinai” |
John Harold, MD, attending physician at the Smidt Heart Institute, former chief of staff at Cedars-Sinai, and past president of the American College of Cardiology |
Thursday May 21, 2020 |
“A Most Unfortunate Event in the History of Cedars Nephrology: The Saga of Richard Lippman” |
Leon Fine, MD, professor of biomedical sciences and medicine, Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday May 14, 2020 |
“To Adapt Himself to the Capacity of Common Readers’: Thomas Dancer’s The Medical Assistant (1801) and the Translation of Elite Medicine Into a Plantation Advice Text” |
Claire Gherini, PhD, postdoctoral fellow in the Program in the History of Medicine at Cedars-Sinai and assistant professor of history at Fordham University |
Thursday May 7, 2020 |
“Translating Science into Global Health Policy: The History of Malaria Control and Insecticide-Treated Nets in the 1990s” |
Kirsten Moore-Sheeley, PhD, postdoctoral fellow in the Program in the History of Medicine at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday April 30, 2020 |
“Thomas Hodgkin: Nothing Human Was Foreign to Him” |
Stephen Geller, MD, pathologist and chairman emeritus of the Department of Pathology at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday April 23, 2020 |
“House Call at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue” |
Leo Gordon, MD, general surgeon and professor of surgery at Cedars-Sinai |
Thursday April 16, 2020 |
“Jewish Prisoner-Physicians in Nazi Camps” |
Sari Siegel, PhD, postdoctoral fellow in the Program in the History of Medicine at Cedars-Sinai |
Have Questions or Need Help?
Contact us if you have questions or would like additional information about the History of Medicine Program.